The poem tells of an important battle that took place in 991 in northern Essex between the English and the Danes. The end of the tenth century saw the disastrous reign of Æthelræd the Unready (more correctly 'unrædig' which means 'ill-advised'). As Scragg notes (1991, p. xii):
'The long reign of Æthelræd the Unready, king of England 978-1016, was disturbed by a series of damaging Viking raids, culminating in an invasion by Swein, King of Denmark 987-1014, whose son Cnut was subsequently to rule both kingdoms. The battle of Maldon in 991 was amongst the most serious of the early encounters of the campaign, and arguably the one with the most far-reaching consequences. It was subsequent to this battle, and presumably as a result of its loss, that the English began to pay large sums in tribute to the Danes.'
The battle is referred to in all the extant copies of The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Bately ('The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' in Scragg [1991] pp.37-50) provides the following three translations:
'AD 991. In this year Ipswich was ravaged, and very soon afterwards Ealdorman Byrhtnoth was killed at Maldon. And in that year it was determined that tribute should first be paid to the Danish men because of the great terror they wrought…' (ASC B)
'AD 991. Here Ealdorman Byrhtnoth was slain at Maldon. And in that same year it was determined that tribute should first be paid to Danish men….' (ASC F)
AD 993. Here in this year Olaf came with ninety-three ships to Folkestone, and they ravaged round about it, and then he went to Sandwich, and so from there to Ipswich, and overran it all, and so to Maldon. And Ealdorman Byrhtnoth came against him/them there with his army and fought against him/them; and they killed the ealdorman there and had control of the field…' ( ASC A)
Another contemporary source is Byrhtferth's Life of St Oswald (a Latin text written around the end of the tenth century) which states:
'After some few months had passed, another savage battle was fought in the east of this great country, in which Byrhtnoth, the distinguished ealdorman, alongside his personal retinue, held the military command. Who, sustained with eloquence, could say how gloriously, how bravely, how boldly the battle-leader exhorted his men in the battle-array? He himself was tall of stature standing above the rest. Aaron and Hur did not 'stay his hands': it was the Lord's manifold mercy which sustained them, for he was worthy of it. He struck blows from his right side, not paying heed to the swan-white hair of his head, since alms and holy masses gave him consolation. He protected himself on the left-hand side, forgetful of the weakness of his body, for prayers and good deeds uplifted him. When the estimable champion saw his enemies rush forward, and saw his own men fighting bravely and falling in droves, he began to fight for his country with all his might. For an infinite number of them and us fell; and Byrhtnoth fell, and those remaining fled. The Danes too were severely wounded: they were scarcely able to man their ships.'
In most cases the details are very similar, i.e. a Danish army (possibly led by Olaf Tryggvason) harrying the coast until it was met at Maldon by the army of Essex. The English, under their leader Ealdorman Byrhtnoth, were defeated, and the Danes started to exact tribute.
Other References to Maldon appear in:
'Florence' of Worcester's Chronicle of Chronicles (early 12th century) -from the translation in D. G. Calder and M. J. B. Allen Sources and Analogues of Old English poetry (London, 1976), p. 189. Calder and Allen note that this is repeated, almost verbatim, in Simeon of Durham's Historia Regum:
'991. In this same year, the Danes, led by Justin and Guthmund, the son of Steitan, ravaged Ipswich. Not long afterwards, Byrhtnoth, the vigorous ealdorman of the East Saxons, fought a battle with them near Maldon; but after an infinite number had been killed on both sides, the ealdorman himself fell. It was the Danes' fortune to prevail.'
Henry of Huntingdon's The History of the English (12th century) - from the translation in D. G. Calder and M. J. B. Allen Sources and Analogues of Old English poetry (London, 1976), p. 190:
'Elsewhere, Ipswich was plundered. The ealdorman, Byrhtnoth, opposed the Danes in battle with a considerable force, but was defeated. He himself was slain by the sword and his troops were driven back and destroyed.'
Anon. The Ely Book (or Liber Eliensis - late 12th century) - from the translation in D. G. Calder and M. J. B. Allen Sources and Analogues of Old English poetry (London, 1976), pp. 190-92:
'There follows a memorable account of Brithnoth, a remarkable and famous man, whose life and deeds receive no small praise in the English histories. . . This famous man was leader of the Northumbrians and extremely brave. Because of the extraordinary wisdom and bodily strength with which he firmly defended himself and his men, everyone called him 'ealdorman' in English, that is, an elder or leader. . . Then on one occasion when the Danes had landed at Meldun and he heard about it, he met them with an armed force and killed nearly all of them on the bridge. Only a few of them escaped and sailed to their country to tell the news. After this victory ealdorman Brithnoth quickly returnned to Northumbria. The Danes who were extremely depressed by their news, once more fitted out a fleet. Led by Justin and Stectan's son, Guthmund, they hurried to England and landed at Meldun again four years later to avenge the slaughter of their men. When they reached the harbor, they heard that it was Brithnoth who had inflicted this slaughter. They immediately sent word they had come to avenge their men and would consider Brithnoth a coward if he did not dare fight them. Brithnoth's valor was roused by this news and he summoned his old comrades to the affair. With a few warriors, and led by the hope of victory and his own over-great spirit, he marched to battle, both taking precautions and hurrying to prevent the enemy army from occupying even one foot of land in his absence. . .When he arrived, he was not worried by the small numbers in his own army, nor alarmed by the enemy's multitude. But he attacked the Danes at once and fought savagely for a fortnight. On the last day, and with few of his men left, Brithnoth knew he was going to die, but this did not lessen his efforts against the enemy. Having inflicted an enormous slaughter on the Danes, he almost put them to flight. But eventually the enemy took comfort from the small number of Brithnoth's men, and, forming themselves into a wedge, rushed against him in one body. After an enormous effort the Danes barely managed to cut off Brithnoth's head as he fought. They carried the head away with them and fled to their own land.
When the Abbot [of Ely] heard about the battle's outcome, he went to the battlefield with some of his monks, found Brithnoth's body and, taking it back to the church, buried it honorably. But in place of the head he put a round ball of wax, by which sign the body was recognized long afterwards in our own times and placed with honor among the others. '